Lithium is ubiquitous these days with its increased use in rechargeable batteries found in everything from lorries and cars through to consumer durables and toys. It is found abundantly in many areas of the globe, but in terms of quality its main mining regions are in South America and China. The growth of the EV market is the main driver for the mining and processing of Lithium. Future demand for Lithium is set to dwarf current levels.
Lithium is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal that has many applications in various fields, such as medicine, electronics, energy storage, and aerospace. Lithium is a key material for the transition to a low-carbon economy, as it is used to make lithium-ion batteries that power electric vehicles (EVs) and store renewable energy. However, lithium also poses significant environmental and social challenges, as its extraction and processing require substantial amounts of water, energy, and land, and often affect the livelihoods of local communities and the habitats of wildlife. In this article, we will explore the current and future trends of lithium use, the main lithium sources and deposits, the problems associated with lithium mining, and potential alternatives to lithium batteries.
According to a report by BloombergNEF, global demand for lithium is expected to increase from 47 kilotons (kt) in 2020 to 1,864 kt in 2030, representing a compound annual growth rate of 38%. The main driver of this growth is the EV sector, which accounted for 67% of lithium demand in 2020 and is projected to reach 88% by 2030. The report estimates that there will be 116 million EVs on the road by 2030, up from 10 million in 2020. Other applications of lithium include consumer electronics, grid storage, and industrial uses.
The EV sector is influenced by several factors that affect the demand for lithium, such as battery chemistry, battery size, vehicle range, vehicle efficiency, and vehicle sales. Battery chemistry refers to the composition of the cathode (positive electrode) and the anode (negative electrode) materials in a lithium-ion battery. Different chemistries have different performance characteristics, such as energy density, power density, safety, cost, and lifespan. The most common cathode chemistries are nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC), nickel-cobalt-aluminium (NCA), lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP), and lithium-manganese-oxide (LMO). The most common anode material is graphite.
Battery size refers to the capacity of a battery measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). Larger batteries can store more energy and provide longer driving range for EVs. However, they also increase the weight and cost of the vehicle. Vehicle range refers to the distance that an EV can travel on a single charge. It depends on factors such as battery size, vehicle efficiency, driving conditions, and driver behaviour. Vehicle efficiency refers to the amount of energy that an EV consumes per unit distance travelled. It depends on factors such as vehicle design, aerodynamics, weight, regenerative braking, and powertrain efficiency. Vehicle sales refer to the number of EVs sold in a given market or region. They depend on factors such as consumer preferences, government policies, infrastructure availability, charging options, and price competitiveness.
The demand for lithium is also influenced by the supply chain dynamics of the lithium industry. Lithium is mainly sourced from two types of deposits: brine and hard rock. Brine deposits are saline water bodies that contain dissolved lithium salts. They are typically found in arid regions such as South America’s Lithium Triangle (Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile), China’s Qinghai province, and Nevada’s Clayton Valley. Hard rock deposits are igneous or metamorphic rocks that contain lithium-bearing minerals such as spodumene or petalite. They are mostly found in Australia, Canada, China, Finland, Portugal, Zimbabwe, and other countries.
The extraction and processing of lithium from these deposits involve different methods and technologies. Brine extraction involves pumping brine from underground reservoirs to evaporation ponds where solar radiation concentrates the lithium salts over several months or years. The concentrated brine is then further purified and converted into lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide using chemical reagents. Hard rock extraction involves mining ore from open-pit or underground mines and crushing it into smaller pieces. The ore is then processed using various techniques such as flotation, roasting involves heating the ore in a furnace with sulphuric acid or sodium carbonate to produce water-soluble lithium sulphate or lithium carbonate. Flotation involves adding chemicals and air bubbles to the ore slurry to separate the lithium-bearing minerals from the waste rock. The separated minerals are then further refined and converted into lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide.
The choice of extraction and processing methods depends on factors such as the grade, quality, and location of the lithium deposit, the availability and cost of water, energy, and chemicals, the environmental and social impacts, and the market demand and price of lithium products. Generally, brine extraction has lower operating costs but higher capital costs than hard rock extraction. Brine extraction also requires more time, water, and land area than hard rock extraction. However, brine extraction can produce higher purity lithium products than hard rock extraction.
Lithium mining poses significant environmental and social challenges for the regions where it takes place. Some of the main problems are:
Water consumption: Lithium extraction and processing consume large amounts of water, especially in arid regions where water is scarce and valuable for human and ecological needs. For example, it is estimated that producing one ton of lithium from brine requires 500,000 gallons of water, which is equivalent to the annual water consumption of 11 people in the US. This can lead to water depletion, contamination, and conflicts with local communities and farmers who depend on water for irrigation, drinking, and sanitation.
Energy consumption: Lithium extraction and processing require large amounts of energy, mostly from fossil fuels, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. For example, it is estimated that producing one ton of lithium from brine emits 15 tons of carbon dioxide, which is equivalent to the annual emissions of three cars in the US. This can also increase the dependence on imported oil and gas and create geopolitical risks.
Land degradation: Lithium extraction and processing require large areas of land, which can affect the natural landscape, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. For example, brine extraction involves building evaporation ponds that cover thousands of hectares of land and alter the hydrological cycle, soil quality, and wildlife habitats. Hard rock extraction involves creating open-pit or underground mines that generate waste rock, tailings, dust, noise, and visual impacts. Both methods can also affect the cultural and historical heritage of the land and the indigenous peoples who live there.
In terms of its societal impacts, Lithium and lithium mining is again a mixed bag. On the one hand lithium mining creates jobs, income, infrastructure, and development opportunities for the host countries and regions. Indeed, the European Commission expects the Lithium economy in the EU alone will result in four million new jobs by 2025. McKinsey suggests that producing lithium hydroxide in Australia may create up to 18,000 temporary construction jobs and 4,000 permanent operational jobs by 2030.
On the other hand, lithium mining can also cause displacement, resettlement, human rights violations, health problems, corruption, inequality, and social conflicts among different stakeholders. For example, Salar de Atacama, Chile’s largest salt flat is home to 18 indigenous Atacameño communities. It has been mined extensively for a range of mineral ores much without consultation compensation offered to these indigenous peoples from the mining companies or the government, and their right to prior consent has not been respected. Furthermore. the unequal distribution of benefits and costs from lithium mining has created tensions and protests among the local communities, who demand more participation and transparency in the decision-making process.
Currently, Lithium, or more specifically Lithium-based batteries are our best hope of reaching net-zero. Billions of dollars are being spent on researching alternatives such as hydrogen fuel cells for mass transportation, but the infrastructure, our economies and our laws are geared up for EVs replacing ICEs over the next 5-10 years. Whilst some governments, most notably the UK Government, are back tracking on the timescales, the trajectory looks set. We cannot do nothing, Equally we cannot wait in hope that some technological fix is going to save the day, like the promise of nuclear fusion, seemingly always just a decade away, So despite its limitations, despite the problems it causes, mining lithium is the only game in town right now. What we can do is mine responsibly, fairly and with regard to the people it affects. Will that happen? On this we are not so sure.