Copper, an indispensable mineral powering modern technologies such as Li-Ion batteries, electric vehicles, and renewable energy infrastructure, has emerged as a linchpin of progress in the 21st century, just as it did in the second half of the industrial revolution. As the world witnesses a surge in demand for new cleaner, environmentally friendly technologies, the significance of copper in driving technological advancement becomes increasingly apparent. However, beneath its lustrous exterior lies a darker reality – the mining and extraction of copper come at a significant cost, bearing substantial environmental and social impacts.
Copper's exceptional ability to conduct electricity is primarily due to its unique chemical properties. Copper has a low electrical resistivity, which means it offers less resistance to the flow of an electric current. This property allows electrons to move more freely through the material, resulting in efficient electrical conduction. Copper also possesses one of the highest electrical conductivity values among common metals. At room temperature, it has an electrical conductivity of approximately 58.5 million siemens per meter (MS/m). This high conductivity enables the efficient transmission of electric current with minimal energy loss.
Copper's electron configuration also plays a vital role in its electrical conductivity. It has one electron in its outermost shell, which allows it to form a "sea of delocalized electrons" within its crystal lattice. These delocalized electrons can move freely throughout the material, facilitating the flow of electric current. Copper also boasts high thermal conductivity, which means it can efficiently transfer heat. This property is closely related to its electrical conductivity since both involve the movement of electrons and lattice vibrations (phonons).
Copper is a highly ductile and malleable metal, meaning it can be easily drawn into wires and shaped into various forms without losing its conductivity. This property makes it ideal for manufacturing electrical wires and cables. Copper forms a protective oxide layer on its surface, which protects it from corrosion. This oxide layer ensures the longevity and reliability of copper electrical components.
Finally, copper can be alloyed with other metals to enhance specific properties without significantly affecting its excellent electrical conductivity. For example, copper is commonly alloyed with tin to form bronze or with zinc to create brass.
Due to these specific chemical properties, copper has become the material of choice for electrical wiring, power transmission lines, and various electrical components. Its widespread use in electrical applications has significantly contributed to the advancement of modern technology and the efficient distribution of electricity across the globe. It is fair to say that copper, along with iron and steam formed the basis of the industrial revolution in many of the innovations of the age would have been unthinkable without it.
In short copper is valuable.
But like everything upon which we place a value scarcity of supply, endogenous (e.g., the global financial crash of 2008) and exogenous market threats, such as the Covid-19 pandemic mean that the monetary value of copper has undergone significant fluctuations over decades. However, the projected surge in electric vehicle demand is poised to drive up copper prices. As an illustration of the rise in demand for copper indicated by just one technology, the EV the average electric vehicle requires around 83kg of copper, whereas a conventional vehicle demands just over a quarter of this amount.
Chart 1: Copper Prices in US$ per lb since 1959 Source: Macrotrends: Copper Prices - 45 Year Historical Chart This relentless rise in demand can only mean one thing for the price of copper as Chart 1 illustrates. Indeed, market analysts often refer to copper as the “Doctor” because rising copper prices mean greater demand which means greater economic activity.
In 2021, the world’s copper production was 16,890 thousand tons. The top five producers, responsible for over 75% of global copper ore production, are Peru, China, The Democratic Republic of Congo, and the USA.
However, like any metal ore that needs to be mined, the extraction of copper can have severe environmental and social costs. The process of extracting copper from the Earth brings about far-reaching environmental consequences, leaving an indelible mark on the natural world. The relentless quest for copper necessitates extensive mining operations, involving the removal of overburden and the use of heavy machinery. This process results in soil erosion, as soil particles and pollutants are washed into waterways, leading to contamination and the degradation of fragile ecosystems. Chemicals such as potassium ethyl xanthate (CH3CH2OCS2K) and 4-Methyl-2-pentanol (C6H14O, also known as “MIBC”) are flammable, harmful is swallowed and can cause skin and eye irritant. These chemicals can and have been found in infiltrated water sources, causing water pollution that imperils drinking water safety, jeopardizes fishing industries, and compromises recreational activities.
The 34,000 residents of Butte, Montana live with of the problems copper mining causes to the environment every day, despite the mine closing 40 years ago in 1982. The Berkeley Pit forms part of the Upper Clarke River site, the US’s largest “Superfund" site for environmental clean-up operations.
The copper mining and smelting activity in Butte resulted in significant contamination of an area of land that stretches 120 miles to Milltown, Montana, to the northwest. Sediment flooded out from abandoned mines contaminated with arsenic, copper, zinc. cadmium and lead from mining and smelting copper.
Butte also serves as a reminder that copper mining pursuit of copper necessitates the clearing of vast tracts of land, often leading to the destruction of habitats for countless plant and animal species, consequently contributing to the alarming loss of biodiversity. The former copper mine dominates the landscape. Whilst the pit itself is 1 mile long and ½ a mile wide, the surrounding earthworks cover 8 square miles of poisoned land.
Against this backdrop, the fact that CO2 emissions from copper mining seem almost immaterial. They are not. According to Scarn Associates copper extraction and smelting accounts for “over 86 million tons (Mt CO2e) of Scope 1 and 2 CO2 equivalent emissions, plus an additional 38Mt CO2e associated with freight to importing country port, smelting and refining”.
Beyond the environmental toll, copper mining exacts a heavy human cost, disrupting lives and violating human rights. These include the displacement of local communities, compelling them to abandon their homes, lose ancestral lands, and endure profound disruptions to their livelihoods. The copper mining industry is also responsible for various human rights abuses, including forced labour, child labour, and the use of violence against workers, tarnishing the ethical fabric of copper mining.
In a landmark report released in 2015 Amnesty outlined in detail the abuse of human rights of mineworkers and local inhabitants of mining land in Myanmar. Amongst other allegations Amnesty point out that Canadian mining company Ivanhoe Mines, now Turquoise Hill Resources, knew its investment in the mine would lead to the forcible eviction of thousands of people in the 1990s and that more forcible evictions occurred in 2011for the construction of the Letpadaung mine, run by Chinese company Wanbao and Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings (UMEHL), the economic arm of the Myanmar military, claims that were refuted by Wanbao at the time.
Mitigating the Environmental and Social Impacts of Copper Mining
There is a path to responsible copper mining that necessitates proactive measures and coherent strategies to address the challenges outlined above. These involve the usual elements of money, political will, and resources to manage and monitor both the social and environmental impacts of copper mining and smelting.
Copper is infinitely recyclable. Whilst reclaiming spent copper has its own environmental costs, those costs are far less onerous than those of virgin metal.
Embracing cleaner mining technologies, such as bioleaching, holds the potential to reduce the reliance on harmful chemicals like cyanide, curbing environmental degradation in the process.
Aluminium is often cited as the nearest earth metal replacement for copper. It is lighter, and denser than copper so more wire can be produced per ton than copper. However, this lightness comes at the price of lower conductivity, consequently, more aluminium must be used to pass the same current as copper, which results in larger cables.
More exciting, albeit less of a reality at present, is the possibility that new superconductive materials such as LK-99 could displace coppers pivotal place in multitudes of clean energy applications. The implications of LK-99 or other superconductive materials on existing requirements for copper are significant. If superconductors become commercially viable, the demand for copper would decline significantly.
For example, in power transmission, superconductors could replace copper cables. This would lead to a significant reduction in the amount of copper needed to transmit electricity. In magnets, superconductors could replace copper coils. This would lead to a significant reduction in the amount of copper needed to create strong magnetic fields. In sensors, superconductors could replace copper wires. This would lead to a significant reduction in the amount of copper needed to detect and measure physical phenomena.
The decline in the demand for copper could have a significant impact on the copper industry. The industry would need to find new markets for copper, or it would need to reduce its production. The decline in the demand for copper would also lead to lower prices for copper, benefit consumers.
Governments must assume a pivotal role in instituting and enforcing stringent regulations on the mining industry. These regulations should encompass comprehensive environmental impact assessments, the widespread adoption of cleaner technologies, and the unequivocal protection of human rights.
Reducing the carbon footprint of the copper industry will be crucial in the coming years, as the world seeks to transition to a low-carbon economy. This could involve the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power, to power mining and processing activities. It could also involve the adoption of more efficient technologies and processes, such as using recycled copper instead of newly mined copper.
In addition to these efforts to reduce the environmental and social costs of copper mining and production, it is also important to ensure that the benefits of the industry are shared fairly. This could involve working to ensure that workers in the industry are paid fair wages and have safe working conditions. It could also involve working to ensure that local community's benefit from the presence of the industry, through initiatives such as community development projects and revenue sharing agreements.
Copper stands as an undeniable cornerstone of modern technological progress. Yet, beneath its essential veneer, lies a disconcerting reality of environmental and social consequences that demand immediate attention. Proactive measures are indispensable to mitigate these impacts, ensuring equitable distribution of benefits from copper mining while preserving our planet for generations to come. Only through collective action, through the earnest pursuit of cleaner technologies, the exploration of alternative materials, and the implementation of stringent regulations, can we chart a path towards a more environmentally and socially responsible future for copper mining.